| U.S. Range in the Pacific Ocean |
Bering Sea to Baja (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983) |
| Habitat |
Young in intertidal area (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983) |
| Substrate |
Soft bottom (Love 1996)
Sand or sand-mud to bury (Lassuy 1989, Ketchen 1956 in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Depth range (meters) |
Down to 549 (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983) |
| General Temperature Range (°C) |
7.2–7.8 (British Columbia) (Love 1996)
26.1 (upper lethal limit (50% survival) and juveniles less than 119 mm more susceptible) (Ames et al. 1978 in Lassuy 1989)
17.5 (reduced growth) (Yoklavich 1982 in Lassuy 1989)
8–9 (optimum) (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Lassuy 1989)
18 (reduced growth and feeding) (Yoklavich 1981 in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| General Salinity Range (ppt) |
25–28 (optimum) (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Average Maximum Overall Length (cm) |
57 (Love 1996, Eschmeyer and Herald 1983) |
| Average Maximum weight for Males (cm) |
49 (Van Cleve and El-Sayed 1969 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Average Maximum weight for Females (cm) |
57 (Van Cleve and El-Sayed 1969 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Overall Maximum Age (years) |
22 (Love 1996) |
| Maximum Age for Males (years) |
15 (Van Cleve and El-Sayed 1969 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Maximum Age for Females (years) |
19 (Van Cleve and El-Sayed 1969 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Age when Harvested (years) |
4–7 (80% of total landings) (Kruse 1984 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Overall Growth Rate |
Females grow larger than males (Love 1996)
Same rate for first 2 years then female grows faster (Barss 1976 in Lassuy 1989)
0.37–0.40 mm SL per day when 140–480 days old (Krygier and Pearcy 1986 in Lassuy 1989)
1.9% body weight per day when 72–114mm SL
0.8% body weight per day when 156–188 mm (Yoklavich 1982 in Lassuy 1989)
Peak growth rate in May–June (Kreuz et al. 1982 in (Van Cleve and El-Sayed 1969 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Overall Age at Maturity (years) |
Mature earlier than reported by Harry 1959 (Lassuy 1989) |
| Male Age at Maturity (years) |
2–3 (Ketchen 1956, Van Cleve and El-Sayed 1969 both in Lassuy 1989) (Love 1996)
2 (Harry 1959 in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Female Age at Maturity (years) |
3–3 (Harry 1959 in Emmett et al. 1991)
4 (Ketchen 1956, Van Cleve and El-Sayed 1969 both in Lassuy 1989)
3–5 (Love 1996) |
| Male Length at Maturity (cm) |
29.2 (Love 1996)
22 (50% mature) (Harry 1959 in Lassuy 1989)
21 (some mature)
29+ (all mature) (Harry 1959 in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Female Length at Maturity (cm) |
35.6 (Love 1996)
31 (50% mature) (Harry 1959 in Lassuy 1989)
26 (some mature)
35+ (all mature) (Harry 1959 in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Type of Reproduction |
Gonochoristic, oviparous, iteroparous
External fertilization (Garrison and Miller 1982 in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Fecundity |
150,000–2,100,000 (Love 1996)
327,600 (when 30 cm long)
1,500,000 (when 43 cm long) (Harry 1959 in Lassuy 1989)
1,000,000 (when 36–38 cm long–5–6 years old)
2,000,000 (when 43 cm long) (Ketchen 1947, Harry 1959, Forrester 1969 all in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Spawning Habitat |
Over sand and sand/mud bottom (Lassuy 1989) |
| Time of Year of Spawning |
Variable, depends on temperature and upwelling
Early fall–Spring off Oregon (Love 1996)
December–February (peak) (Laroche and Richardson 1979 and Kruse and Tyler 1983 both in Lassuy 1989)
January–April (Oregon)
February or March (peak off Oregon) (Harry 1959 in Emmett et al. 1991)
December through early April (in British Columbia) (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Stickney et al. 1995) |
| Number of Spawns per season |
1+ (Love 1996) |
| Spawning/Temperature Relationship (°C) |
Gonad development inverse relationship to temperature
7.8 (below this temperature–gonad development inhibited) (Kruse and Tyler 1983 in Lassuy 1989, Jacksone 1981 in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Description of Eggs |
Buoyant (Lassuy 1989, Hart 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Pelagic (Budd 1940, Forrester 1969, Hart 1973 all in Emmett et al. 1991)
Euryhaline (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Stickney et al. 1995) |
| Days to Hatch |
4–12 (Love 1996)
3.5 (at 12°C)
11.8 (at 4°C) (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Temperature for Egg Survival (°C) |
8.3 (no development)
7 (development but no hatching) (Ketchen 1956 in Lassuy 1989)
20 (complete mortality)
4 (50% hatch success) (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Lassuy 1989)
2–4°C none hatched
8°C (optimal)
Temperature had more of an impact on hatching than salinity (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Stickney et al. 1995) |
| Salinity for Egg Survival (ppt) |
17–34 (90% hatch) (Wide range of salinity) (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Lassuy 1989)
25 ppt (optimal) (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Stickney et al. 1995) |
| Habitat where Larvae are found |
Pelagic (Budd 1940, Forrester 1969, Hart 1973 all in Emmett et al. 1991)
Eggs sink prior to hatching (Hart 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Larvae are released in coastal water (Gunderson et al. 1990 in Stickney et al. 1995) |
| Days in Larval Stage |
60–120 (Laroche and Richardson 1979, Rosenberg and Laroche 1982 both in Lassuy 1989)
56–70 (Misitano 1976 in Emmett et al. 1991)
42–70 (Love 1996, Laroche et al. 1982 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Temperature for Larval Survival (°C) |
8–9 (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Salinity for Larval Survival (ppt) |
25–28 (optimal) (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Larval Food Preference |
Appendicularians (Oilopleura species) 97% of food
Other food: Tintinnids, Invertebrate eggs, Nauplii (Gadomski and Boehlert 1984 in Lassuy 1989)
Copepod, preference for Appendicularians (Botsford et al. 1989 in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Habitat where Juveniles are found |
Estuaries and bays (Westrheim 1955, Ketchen 1956, Van Cleve and El-Sayed 1969, Olson and Pratt 1973, Pearcy and Myers 1974, Laroche and Holton 1979, Toole 1980, National Marine Fisheries Service 1981, Krygier and Pearcy 1986, Rogers et al. 1988 all in Emmett et al. 1991, Love 1996)
10 Oregon estuaries used by juveniles (Demory et al. 1973 in Lassuy 1989)
Demersal (Budd 1940, Forrester 1969, Hart 1973 all in Emmett et al. 1991)
Metamorphosis in coastal and estuarine water
First year of life spent in estuary (even if hatched in coastal water) (Gunderson et al. 1990 in Stickney et al. 1995) |
| Length when Juvenile Settles out (cm) |
1.9 (Love 1996)
1.8–2.2 (Laroche and Richardson 1979, Rosenberg and Laroche 1982 both in Lassuy 1989) |
| Temperature for Juvenile Survival (°C) |
Limited by cold temperature
Moves into deeper and colder water as it grows (Yoklavich 1982 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Salinity for Juvenile Survival (ppt) |
Polyhaline and euhaline (Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Juvenile Food Preference |
No feeding during metamorphosis (Hogue and Cary 1982 in Lassuy 1989)
Opportunistic, generalist on benthics (Toole 1980 in Lassuy 1989)
When 3.0 cm cannot eat prey more than 0.2 cm (Houge and Carey 1982, Toole 1980 in Lassuy 1989)
Harpacticoid copepods, Gammarid amphipods, Cumaceans, Mysids, Polychaetes, Small Bivalves, Clam siphonds, other benthics (Simenstad et al. 1979, Allen 1982, Houe and Carey 1982, Becker 1984, Bottom et al. 1984 all in Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Habitat where Adults are found (depth in meters) |
Not in coastal bays
20–70 meters deep in summer
40–130 meters deep in winter (Jow 1969, Barss 1976 both in Lassuy 1989)
Demersal (Budd 1940, Forrester 1969, Hart 1973 all in Emmett et al. 1991)
Mainly marine (Emmett et al. 1991) |
| Adult Food Preference |
Worms, Amphipods, Clams, Brittle Star, Small Fish (Love 1996)
Benthic invertebrates (Polychaetes, Shrimp, Small Mollusks, Crabs) (Clemens and Wilby 1961 in Lassuy 1989)
Significant amounts of Polychaetes (Capitella species) (Becker and Chew 1987 in Lassuy 1989)
Primarily Polychaetes, Amphipods, Mollusks, Ophiouroids, Crustaceans (Kravitz et al. 1976 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Benthic organisms such as Polychaete Palps, Juvenile bivalves, Glam siphons, Harpacticoid copepods, Amphipods, Cumaceans, and Juvenile decapods
Varied with location of capture, season and length (Houge and Carey 1982 in Stickney et al.1995) |
| Food Eaten in Laboratory Setting |
Larvae die by 14 days if no food
Absorb yolk for first 9–10 days at 10.6°C (Orsi 1968 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Additional Laboratory Findings |
Best growth in the lab at 16% ration (dry weight food/dry weight fish) at 9.5°C
Most efficient growth at 8% ration and 9.5°C (Williams and Caldwell 1978 in Stickney et al. 1995)
|
| Environmental Considerations |
Change of 1°C equivalent effect of change of 4 ppt salinity on hatch success (Alderdice and Forrester 1968 in Lassuy 1989)
Less were caught when dissolved oxygen was down to 1.0 mg/l (Lassuy 1989) |
| Commercial Fishery |
"Along much of the coast, English sole are second only to Dover sole in total pounds landed." (Love 1996, Pacific Marine Fisheries Commission 1987 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Females are over 90% of landings since males smaller (Barss 1976 in Lassuy 1989, Pedersen and DiDonato 1982 in Emmett et al. 1991)
"Moderate important commercial fish" (Emmett et al. 1991)
Important (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983) |
| Market |
"This is the choicest of the small flatfish, having a very delicate flavor…." (Clemens and Wilby 1961 in Lassuy 1989)
There has been a decline in biomass of English sole in Oregon's trawl fishery
7% of total catch (Oregon) (Golden et al. 1986 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Sold Fresh or Frozen |
Fresh and Frozen (Love 1996) |
| Style Species is Sold |
Whole
Filleted (Love 1996) |
| Shelf-life in Fresh State (days at 40°F) |
5 (Love 1996) |
| Shelf-life in Frozen State (months at 0°F) |
9–12 (Love 1996) |
| Parasites or Disease |
29 species of parasites
At +15°C juveniles more susceptible to microsporidial infection (Olson 1978 in Lassuy 1989)
Epizootic skin tumor cause significant mortality for juveniles (Angell et al. 1975 in Lassuy 1989)
The following hurt marketability but can be eaten: myxosporidean disease and the nematode Phiometra americana(Holland 1969, Barss 1976 both in Lassuy 1989)
Cancerous tumors when exposed to contaminants (Malius et al. 1983 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Myxosporidian disease makes flesh milky (Hart 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
15 species of parasites found in juveniles in Yaquina Bay
14 species of parasites found in offshore fish (Olson 1978 in Stickney et al. 1995)
|
| Additional Remarks |
Hybridize with starry flounder resulting in forkline sole (Love 1996, Eschmeyer and Herald 1983)
Growth rate not associated with stock density (Kreuz et al 1982 in (Van Cleve and El-Sayed 1969 in Lassuy 1989) |
| Location where Species has been Researched/Farmed |
There was some work on culturing this species in the late 1980's and early 1990's for toxicology studies (Rust 2003) |
