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Lingcod
Ophiodon elongatus
Daniel W. Gotshall
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The lingcod is described as a "very important sport and commercial species" (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983). There has been a large amount of interest and research dedicated to this species' aquaculture potential. As this species is better understood, it has a very strong chance of being cultured. The species is prone to overfishing due to slow growth (Bargmann 1982 in Emmett et al. 1991). This is both an opportunity and a constraint. As the population decreases, the price for the species may increase (not to mention the increased regulations on catching the species). On the otherhand, slow growth is a constraint for aquaculture. There is also potential to raise this species for remediation purposes.
In-depth Information Regarding this Species
Alternate Common Names
N/A
U.S. Range in the Pacific Ocean
Kodiak Island to Baja (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983)
Habitat
Shallow water, bays, and estuaries
Males live shallower than females (Love 1996)
Need water movement and rocky location (Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Rocky inshore (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983)
Substrate
Sand, gravel, or eelgrass beds (Love 1996)
Sand (juveniles)
Rock reef and kelp beds (adults) (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983, Emmett et al. 1991)
Depth range (meters)
Down to 427 (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983)
Behavior
Solitary (Love 1996)
Bottom-dwelling (Burgess et al. 1990)
General Temperature Range (°C)
6.7–10 (Love 1996)
23 (Burgess et al. 1990)
General Salinity Range (ppt)
N/A
Maximum Overall Recorded Size (cm)
N/A
Maximum Recorded Size for Males (cm)
N/A
Maximum Recorded Size for Females (cm)
N/A
Average Maximum Overall Length (cm)
152 (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983, Burgess et al. 1990, Love 1996)
Usually only 122 (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983)
Average Maximum Overall Length for Males (cm)
N/A
Average Maximum Overall Length for Females (cm)
N/A
Average Maximum weight (kg)
32 (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983)
Average Maximum weight for Males (cm)
Never bigger than 90 (MBC Applied Environmental Science 1987 in Miller and Geibel 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Average Maximum weight for Females (cm)
+152 (Eschmeyer et al. 1983 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Females grow larger than males (Eschmeyer et al. 1983)
Length When Harvested (cm)
N/A
Weight When Harvested (kg)
N/A
Overall Length to Age Ratio (cm/age in years)
30.5/1
91.4/7–10 years (Love 1996)
27/1
47/2 (Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Male Length to Age Ratio (cm/age in years)
N/A
Female Length to Age Ratio (cm/age in years)
N/A
Overall Maximum Age (years)
20 (Love 1996)
Maximum Age for Males (years)
12 (Forrester 1969 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
14 (Phillips 1959 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Maximum Age for Females (years)
15 (Forrester 1969 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
16 (Phillips 1959 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
20 (Miller and Geibel 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Age when Harvested (years)
N/A
Overall Growth Rate
Females grow faster than males (Love 1996)
1 mm/day (juveniles) (Phillips and Barraclough 1977 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Male Growth Rate
N/A
Female Growth Rate
N/A
Overall Age at Maturity (years)
N/A
Male Age at Maturity (years)
2 (60% mature)
4 (all mature off California) (Love 1996)
2 (youngest mature) (Forrester 1969 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
2 (Miller and Geibel 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Female Age at Maturity (years)
3 (youngest mature)
7 (all mature off California) (Love 1996)
3 (Miller and Geibel 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Overall Length at Maturity (cm)
58 (Shaw and Hassler 1989 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Male Length at Maturity (cm)
50.8 (Begin to mature off British Columbia)
38.1 (California)
50.8 (most mature off California)
46 (smallest mature) (Forrester 1969 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
50 (Miller and Geibel 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Female Length at Maturity (cm)
76.2 (first mature off British Columbia)
50.8 (California)
60.96 (most mature off California) (Love 1996)
70 (smallest mature individual) (Forrester 1969 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
60 (Miller and Geibel 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Maturity/Temperature Relationship
N/A
Type of Reproduction
Gonochoristic, oviparous, iteroparous
External fertilization (Emmett et al. 1991)
Fecundity
6,000–500,000 (Phillips 1959 in Emmett et al. 1991)
60,000–518, 000 (Giorgi 1981 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Spawning Habitat
Spawn in shallow water (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983)
Spawning Behavior
Male guards eggs for 8–10 weeks (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983, Shaw and Hassler 1989, Garrison and Miller 1982 in Emmett et al. 1991, Love 1996 )
Male can be polygamous and guard more than one nest (Garrison and Miller 1982 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Males make nests from November–January in nearshore, rock habitat (Giorgi 1981 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Time of Year of Spawning
November–April
Late December–February (peak) (Love 1996)
Mid-December–Mid-March (Miller and Geibel 1973, Bargmann 1982 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
December–April (Puget Sound)
February and March (peak in Puget Sound) (LaRiviere et al. 1981 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Fall and Early Winter (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983)
Peak spawn December and January (Shaw and Hassler 1989 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Number of Spawns per season
N/A
Spawning/Temperature Relationship (°C)
N/A
Spawning/Salinity Relationship
N/A
Description of Eggs
Demersal, adhesive (Emmett et al. 1991)
Clear, gelatenous matrix extruded into cracks and crevices (Giorgi 1981 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Habitat where Eggs are found
In crevices, masses are up to 15 pounds and 76.2 cm across (Love 1996) (Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Eggs need high oxygen levels (Eschmeyer et al. 1983 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Days to Hatch
42–56 (Jewell 1968 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
42 (Jewell 1968 in Emmett et al. 1991)
42–59 (Giorgi 1981 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Time of Year when Eggs Hatch
N/A
Temperature for Egg Survival (°C)
N/A
Salinity for Egg Survival (ppt)
Euhaline water with strong current (Giorgi 1981, Giorgi and Congleton 1984 both in Emmett et al. 1991)
Predators on Eggs
Snails, Hermit crabs, Sculpin (Love 1996)
Habitat where Larvae are found
Larvae in upper 3 meters (Giorgi 1981 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Days in Larval Stage
N/A
Temperature for Larval Survival (°C)
N/A
Salinity for Larval Survival (ppt)
N/A
Larval Food Preference
Yolk absorbed after 10 days (Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Small Copepods, Copepod Eggs, Fish Larvae, Larvaceans (type of pelagic tunicate) (Grosse 1982 in Shaw and Hassler 1989, Emmett et al. 1991)
First feed on small copepods and eggs then larval fish (Giorgi 1981 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Yolk absorbed 10 days post hatch (Shaw and Hassler 1989 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Larvae eat zooplankton about 250-512 mm in size (Shaw and Hassler 1989 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Habitat where Juveniles are found
Pelagic, attracted to light at night
Large juveniles stay on bottom (Love 1996)
Congregate inshore when 70–80 mm in size (Phillips and Barraclough 1977 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Demersal (Miller and Geibel 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
In estuaries and bays (Emmett et al. 1991)
Demersal at 90 days old (8 cm)
Sandy or part rocky habitat (Giorgi 1981 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Length when Juvenile Settles out (cm)
N/A
Temperature for Juvenile Survival (°C)
N/A
Salinity for Juvenile Survival (ppt)
N/A
Where and When Juvenile Feeds
N/A
Juvenile Food Preference
Juvenile Herring (Phillips and Barraclough 1977 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Common Prawn, Pacific Sand Lance, Crustacean (shrimp like– Neomysis macrops) (Shaw and Hassler 1989)
When 7–8 cm begin to eat juvenile herring (Shaw and Hassler 1989 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Habitat where Adults are found (depth in meters)
Demersal (Miller and Geibel 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Marine (MBC Applied Environmental Science 1987 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Temperature for Adult Survival (°C)
5–15 (MBC Applied Environmental Science 1987 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Salinity for Adult Survival (ppt)
N/A
Adult Feeding Type
"The diet of a young lingcod appears to be largely governed by the size of its mouth. If a prey item can be swallowed, the ling cod will try to eat it (Phillips and Barraclough 1977 in Stickney et al. 1995)."
Adult Food Preference
Fish, Squid, Octopi (Love 1996)
Generalists
Fish, Cephalopods, Gastropods Crustaceans (Phillips 1959, Miller and Geibel 1973 both in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Juvenile Rockfish most common food (Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Feed at night on Sand Lance and Flatfish
Feed during the day on Herring and Spiny Dogfish (Wilby 1937 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Pacific herring, Sand lance, Flounders, Pacific hake, Rockfish, Large crustaceans (Emmett et al. 1991)
Cannibalistic (Hart 1973 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Females do not eat during spawning (MBC Applied Environmental Sciences 1987 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Mainly Fish but also Octopus, Squid, Gastropods, and Crustaceans (Shaw and Hassler 1989 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Food Eaten in Laboratory Setting
Juveniles fed frozen Herring (Grosse 1982 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Amount of Food Eaten in Laboratory Setting
Juveniles fed frozen herring and krill and herring pastes (ground up krill and herring)
Social feeding hierarchies developed (Grosse 1982 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Juveniles 70 mm–fed 30 mm live herring and then ate frozen herring, live and frozen sand lance, salmon fry (Phillips and Barraclough 1977 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Additional Laboratory Findings
Eggs hatched in fiberglass tanks with current over 50 cm/sec and temp 7.9–9.5 °C (Giorgi 1981 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Juvenile raised in net pens that were 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 1.8 m deep with 0.64 cm mesh netting
Mortality mainly from cannibalism (Grosse 1982 in Stickney et al. 1995)
When fed frozen herring individuals had a food conversion (wet weight consumed/wet weight gained) of 2.0 (Phillips and Barraclough 1977 in Stickney et al. 1995)
Environmental Considerations
N/A
Commercial Fishery
Important
+4,000 tons in 1985 equaled $2.9 million (National Marine Fisheries Service 1986 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Since 1960 general decrease in catch (Bargmann 1981, Cass 1981 both in Emmett et al. 1991)
"Very important sport and commercial species" (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983)
Market
"Highly esteemed in the fresh seafood market" (Shaw and Hassler 1989)
"Excellent taste" (Eschmeyer et al. 1983 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Flesh green but color disappears when cooked (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983)
Sold Fresh or Frozen
Fresh and frozen (Love 1996)
Style Species is Sold
Fillet
Steak (Love 1996)
Additional Use of the Species
N/A
Shelf-life in Fresh State (days at 40°F)
5–7 (Love 1996)
Shelf-life in Frozen State (months at 0°F)
6–9 (Love 1996)
Shelf-life Canned (months)
N/A
Weight sold in Oregon (kg)
N/A
Ornamental Market
In aquarium guide (Burgess et al. 1990)
Parasites or Disease
Nematode–most common natural parasite (Cucullanus elongatus)(Berland 1983 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Also 5 trematodes, 2 cestodes, 2 other nematodes (Arai 1969 in Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Additional Remarks
Males can be sexed externally via papilla forward of anus (Shaw and Hassler 1989)
Overfishing can be problem due to slow growth (Bargmann 1982 in Emmett et al. 1991)
Difficult to raise (Burgess et al. 1990)
Location where Species has been Researched/Farmed
University of Washington began research on halibut and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Pacific Biological Station (Canada) began work on lingcod, halibut, and sablefish but all of the projects were stopped. (Nosho and Freeman 1994).
Some work done at Pacific Northwest Science Center
Appropriate Aquaculture Systems
N/A
Recent Wild Harvest Data for Oregon
Data from the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife
(Pounds)
( U.S. Dollars)
Lingcod Guarding Nest of Eggs
Alaska Fisheries Science Center, Resource Assessment and Conservation Engineering
To link to their webpage click here.
Marc Chamberlain
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Kerry Werry
(copyright 1996-2002 K. Werry)
